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Link targeting in CSS

Although a fairly common practice online, link targeting—using the target attribute on a
and area elements (see the following code for an example), typically to open a link in
a new window—is not without its problems and should be avoided.
<a href="a-web-page.html" target="_blank">Open in a new window</a>
While some argue that this practice is beneficial, enabling users to look at external content
and return to your site, what it actually does is take control of the browser away from
users. After all, if someone actually wants to open content in a new window, they can do
so using keyboard commands and/or contextual menus. More important, opening documents
in new windows breaks the history path. For many, this might not be a huge issue,
but for those navigating the Web via a screen reader, pop-ups are a menace. New content
opens up, is deemed to not be of interest, and the back function is invoked. But this is a
new window, with its own blank history. Gnashing of teeth ensues. There’s also the problem
that you can’t guarantee what will happen when this attribute is used anyway—many
users configure browsers to suppress new windows, either forcing them to open in a new
tab or over the top of the current page.
There’s also the issue that target is deprecated. Although it remains valid when working
with XHTML Transitional (and XHTML Frameset), it’s not when using XHTML Strict.

There is, however, a JavaScript alternative for those very rare occasions where you need to
use a link to open a new window (this is explored on Bruce Lawson’s website, at www.
brucelawson.co.uk/2005/opening-links-in-new-windows-in-xhtml-strict-2/); essentially,
you attach the script to your web pages and then add rel="external" to the a start
tag for external links. Complying with the W3C’s Web Content Accessibility Guidelines
(WCAG), the script also warns when new windows are about to be opened. Ultimately,
though, you should avoid new windows whenever possible. For occasions when you want
to provide a temporary new window (such as for a terms-and-conditions box during a
checkout process), use a JavaScript pop-up, or place the terms inline by using a scrollable
content area

Editing link styles using CSS

Along with changing link colors, CSS enables you to style links just like any other piece of
text. You can define specific fonts; edit padding, margins, and borders; change the fontweight and style; and also amend the standard link underline, removing it entirely if you
wish (by setting the text-decoration property to none).
a:link {
color: #3366cc;
font-weight: bold;
text-decoration: none;
}
Removing the standard underline is somewhat controversial, even in these enlightened
times, and causes endless (and rather tedious) arguments among web designers. My view
is that it can be OK to do so, but with some caveats.
If you remove the standard underline, ensure your links stand out from the surrounding
copy in some other way. Having your links in the same style and color as other words and
not underlined is a very bad idea. The only exception is if you don’t want users to easily
find the links and click them (perhaps for a children’s game or educational site).
A common device used by web designers is to recolor links, in order to distinguish them
from body copy. However, this may not be enough (depending on the chosen colors),
because a significant proportion of the population has some form of color blindness. A
commonly quoted figure for color blindness in Western countries is 8%, with the largest
affected group being white males (the worldwide figure is lower, at approximately 4%).
Therefore, a change of color (to something fairly obvious) and a change of font weight to
bold often does the trick.
Whatever your choice, be consistent—don’t have links change style on different pages of
the site. Also, it’s useful to reinforce the fact that links are links by bringing back the
underline on the hover state. An example of this is shown to the right (see editing-linkstyles-
using-css.html and editing-link-styles-using-css.html in the chapter 5
folder of the completed files).

Links are bold and orange, making them stand out from surrounding text. On the hover
state, the link darkens to red and the standard underline returns. The second of those
things is achieved by setting text-decoration to underline in the a:hover declaration.
Note that even when presented in grayscale, such as in this book, these two states can be
distinguished from surrounding text.

You can also combine pseudo-classes. For example, if you add the rules shown following
to a style sheet (these are from the editing-link-styles-using-css documents), you’d
have links going gray when visited, but turning red on the hover state (along with showing
the underline). Note that because the link and visited states are exclusive, the bold
value for font-weight is assigned using the grouped selector. It could also be applied to
individual rules, but this is neater.
a:link, a:visited {
font-weight: bold;
}
a:link {
color: #f26522;
text-decoration: none;
}
a:visited {
color: #8a8a8a;
}
a:hover {
color: #f22222;
text-decoration: underline;
}
a:active {
color: #000000;
text-decoration: underline;
}
If you decided that you wanted visited links to retain their visited color on the hover
state, you could add the following rule:
a:visited:hover {
color: #8a8a8a;
}

Correctly ordering link states

The various states have been defined in a specific order in the previous example: link,
visited, hover, focus, active. This is because certain states override others, and those
“closest” to the link on the web page take precedence.
There is debate regarding which order the various states should be in, so I can only provide
my reasoning for this particular example. It makes sense for the link to be a certain
color when you hover over it, and then a different color on the active state (when
clicked), to confirm the click action. However, if you put the hover and active states in
the other order (active, hover), you may not see the active one when the link is clicked.
This is because you’re still hovering over the link when you click it.
The focus state is probably primarily use keyboard users, and so they won’t typically see
hover anyway. However, for mouse users, it makes logical sense to place focus after hover,
because it’s a more direct action—in other words, the link is selected, ready for activation

during the focus state; but if you ordered the states focus, hover, a link the cursor is
hovering over would not change appearance when focused, which from a user standpoint
is unhelpful.
However, there is a counter argument that recommends putting focus before hover, so
that when an already focused link (or potentially any other focused element for non-IE
browsers) is hovered over, it will change from the focused state to indicate that it is now
being hovered over. Ultimately, this is a chicken-and-egg scenario—do you want a hovered
link to change from hover to focus to active? The focus will get lost somewhere in there
until the link is depressed (and the active state removed), by which time the link will be
in the process of being followed.
In the end, the decision should perhaps rest with how you’re styling states and what information
you want to present to the user, and often the focus state is a duplication of hover
anyway, for the benefit of keyboard users. And on some occasions, it doesn’t matter too
much where it’s put, if the styling method is much different from that for other states—
for example, when a border is applied to focus, but a change of color or removal of
underlines is used for the other states. However, if you decide on LVFHA or some other
order, you’ll have to make your own way of remembering the state order!

Defining link states with CSS

CSS has advantages over the obsolete HTML method of defining link states. You gain control
over the hover and focus states and can do far more than just edit the state colors—
although that’s what we’re going to do first.
Anchors can be styled by using a tag selector:
a {
color: #3366cc;
}
In this example, all anchors on the page—including links—are turned to a medium blue.
However, individual states can be defined by using pseudo-class selectors (so called
because they have the same effect as applying a class, even though no class is applied to
the element):
a:link {
color: #3366cc;
}
a:visited {
color: #666699;
}
a:hover {
color: #0066ff;
}
a:focus {
background-color: #ffff00;
}
a:active {
color: #cc00ff;
}

CSS Tutorial : Link states

By default, links are displayed underlined and in blue when viewed in a web browser.
However, links have five states, and their visual appearance varies depending on the current
state of the link. The states are as follows:
link: The link’s standard state, before any action has taken place
visited: The link’s state after having been clicked
hover: The link’s state while the mouse cursor is over it
focus: The link’s state while focused
active: The link’s state while being clicked
The visited and active states also have a default appearance. The former is displayed in
purple and the latter in red. Both are underlined.
If every site adhered to this default scheme, it would be easier to find where you’ve been
and where you haven’t on the Web. However, most designers prefer to dictate their own
color schemes rather than having blue and purple links peppering their designs. In my
view, this is fine. Despite what some usability gurus claim, most web users these days probably
don’t even know what the default link colors are, and so hardly miss them.
In HTML, you may have seen custom link colors being set for the link, active, and
visited states via the link, alink, and vlink attributes of the body element. These attributes
are deprecated, though, and should be avoided. This is a good thing, because you
need to define them in the body element of every page of your site, which is a tiresome
process—even more so if they later need changing; as you might have guessed, it’s easier
to define link states in CSS.